German phonology

The phonology of Standard German is the standard pronunciation or accent of the German language. It deals with current phonology and phonetics as well as with historical developments thereof as well as the geographical variants and the influence of German dialects.

While the spelling of German is officially standardised by an international organisation (the Council for German Orthography) the pronunciation has no official standard and relies on a de facto standard documented in reference works such as Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al., Duden 6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by Max Mangold and the training materials of radio and television stations such as Westdeutscher Rundfunk and Deutschlandfunk. This standardised pronunciation was invented, rather than coming from any particular German-speaking city; however, it is closest to the German spoken in Hanover. Standard German is sometimes referred to as Bühnendeutsch (stage German), but the latter has its own definition and is slightly different.

Monophthongs
Some scholars treat as an unstressed allophone of. Likewise, some scholars treat as an allophone of the unstressed sequence. The phonemic status of is also debated - see below.


 * Notes


 * Close vowels
 * is close front unrounded.
 * is close near-front rounded .   Its rounding is compressed.
 * is close back rounded .   Its rounding is protruded.
 * has been variously described as near-close front unrounded, near-close near-front unrounded  and somewhat lowered near-close near-front unrounded.
 * has been variously described as near-close near-front rounded  and somewhat lowered near-close near-front rounded .  Its rounding is compressed.
 * has been variously described as near-close near-back rounded   and near-close back rounded . Its rounding is protruded.
 * Mid vowels
 * is close-mid front unrounded.
 * In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Bavarian and Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong.
 * has been variously described as close-mid near-front rounded   and mid near-front rounded . Its rounding is compressed.
 * In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong.
 * is close-mid back rounded .   Its rounding is protruded.
 * In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong.
 * is mid central unrounded .  It occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in besetzen  ('occupy'). It is often considered a complementary allophone together with, which cannot occur in unstressed syllables. If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance Kissen  ('pillow'), Esel  ('donkey').
 * has been variously described as mid near-front unrounded and open-mid front unrounded.
 * has been variously described as mid front unrounded and open-mid front unrounded.
 * has been variously described as open-mid near-front rounded  and somewhat lowered open-mid near-front rounded .  Its rounding is compressed.
 * has been variously described as open-mid near-back rounded, somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded and open-mid back rounded .  Its rounding is protruded.
 * Open vowels
 * is near-open central unrounded . It is a common allophone of the sequence common to all German-speaking areas but Switzerland.
 * has been variously described as open front unrounded and open central unrounded .    Some scholars differentiate two short, namely front  and back . The latter occurs only in unstressed open syllables, exactly as.
 * Front or even  is a common realization of  in northern German varieties influenced by Low German.
 * has been variously described as open central unrounded     and open back unrounded . Because of this, it is sometimes transcribed.
 * Back (sometimes even rounded ) is a common realization of  in northern German varieties influenced by Low German.
 * notes that "there is a tendency to neutralize the distinction between, , and . That is, Oda, Radar, and Oder have final syllables which are perceptually very similar, and are nearly or completely identical in some dialects." He also says that "outside of a word context, cannot be distinguished from.

Although there is also a length contrast, vowels are often analyzed according to a tenseness contrast, with long being the tense vowels and short  their lax counterparts. Like the English checked vowels, the German lax vowels require a following consonant, with the notable exception of (which is absent in many varieties, as discussed above). is sometimes considered the lax counterpart of tense in order to maintain this tense/lax division. Short occur in unstressed syllables of loanwords, for instance in Psychometrie  ('psychometry'). They are usually considered allophones of tense vowels, which cannot occur in unstressed syllables (unless in compounds).

Northern German varieties influenced by Low German could be analyzed as lacking contrasting vowel quantity entirely:
 * has a different quality than (see above)
 * These varieties also consistently lack, and use only in its place.

Phonemic status of
The long open-mid front unrounded vowel does not exist in many varieties of Standard German and is rendered as the close-mid front unrounded vowel, so that both Ähre ('ear of grain') and Ehre ('honor') are pronounced  (instead of "Ähre" being ) and both Bären ('bears') and Beeren ('berries') are pronounced  (instead of "Bären" being ). It is debated whether is a distinct phoneme or even exists (except when consciously self-censoring speech), for several reasons:
 * The existence of a phoneme is an irregularity in a vowel system that otherwise has pairs of long and tense vs. short and lax vowels such as  vs. ;
 * The use of in Standard German is more due to hypercorrection and the synthetically created pronunciation traditionally used on stage (Bühnendeutsch) than to a consistent dialectal difference. Although some dialects do have an opposition of  vs., there is little agreement across dialects as to exactly which lexical items should be pronounced with  and which with ;
 * The use of is a spelling pronunciation rather than an original feature of the language. It is an attempt to "speak as is printed" (sprechen wie gedruckt) and to differentiate the spellings $⟨e⟩$ and $⟨ä⟩$ (that is, users of the language attempt to justify the appearance of $⟨e⟩$' and $⟨ä⟩$ in writing by making them distinct in the spoken language);
 * Speakers with an otherwise fairly standard idiolect find it rather difficult to utter longer passages with and  in the right places; such persons apparently have to picture the spellings of the words in question, which impedes the flow of speech.

Phonemic



 * has been variously described as, and.
 * has been variously described as, , and.
 * has been variously described as, , and.

The process of smoothing is absent from standard German, so the sequences are never pronounced * or *.

Phonetic
Marginally, there are other diphthongs, for instance
 * in interjections such as pfui ,

The following usually are not counted among the German diphthongs as German speakers often feel they are distinct marks of "foreign words" (Fremdwörter). These appear only in loanwords:
 * , as in Croissant, colloquially:.
 * states that many speakers of German will use the expression ok with as a possible pronunciation quite frequently, and that alternatively,  and  can be monophthongized to  and, respectively. However, neither  nor  recognize these as phonemes. Instead, they prescribe pronunciations with, respectively,  and  in each loanword from English containing  and.

In the varieties where speakers vocalize to  in the syllable coda, a diphthong ending in  may be formed with every vowel except  and :


 * notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic and that ", following the pronouncing dictionaries  judge the vowel in Art, Schwert, Fahrt to be long, while the vowel in Ort, Furcht, hart is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable." He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic  which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if  precedes.


 * According to the 'lengthless' analysis, the aforementioned 'long' diphthongs are analyzed as, , , , , , and . This makes non-prevocalic  and  homophonous as  or . Non-prevocalic  and  may also merge, but the vowel chart in  shows that they have somewhat different starting points - open-mid front  for the former, raised open-mid retracted front  for the latter.


 * also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases." This leads to, , , , , being pronounced more similar to , , , , ,.

Consonants
With approximately 25 phonemes, the German consonant system has an average number of consonants in comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual affricate.


 * Notes


 * is bilabial–labiodental, rather than purely labiodental.
 * can be apical alveolar,  laminal alveolar  or laminal denti-alveolar . The other possible pronunciation of  that has been reported to occur in unstressed intervocalic positions is retroflex . Austrian German often uses the laminal denti-alveolar articulation.
 * is always clear, as in most Irish English accents. A few Austrian accents may use a velarized instead, but that is considered non-standard.
 * can be laminal alveolar,  laminal post-dental  (i.e. fronted alveolar, articulated with the blade of the tongue just behind upper front teeth), or even apical alveolar .  Austrian German often uses the post-dental articulation.  are always strongly fricated.
 * are strongly labialized palato-alveolar sibilants .   are fricated more weakly than . There are two variants of these sounds:
 * Laminal, articulated with the foremost part of the blade of the tongue approaching the foremost part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue resting behind either upper or lower front teeth.
 * Apico-laminal,  articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the gums and the foremost part of the blade approaching the foremost part of the hard palate. According to, this variant is used more frequently.
 * are used only in loanwords, mostly from English, such as Thriller, though some speakers substitute with any of  and  with any of . There are two variants of these sounds:
 * Apical post-dental, articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the upper incisors.
 * Apical interdental, articulated with the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower incisors.
 * has a number of possible realizations:
 * Voiced apical coronal trill/tap,  either alveolar,  articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge,  or dental, articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper front teeth.
 * Distribution: Common in the south (Bavaria and many parts of Switzerland and Austria), but it is also found in some speakers in central and northern Germany, especially the elderly.
 * Voiced uvular trill . According to  it is often a tap  intervocalically, as in Ehre.
 * Distribution: Occurs in some conservative varieties - most speakers with a uvular  realize it as a fricative or an approximant.
 * Dorsal continuant, about the quality of which there is not a complete agreement:
 * describe two fricative variants, namely post-palatal and velar . The post-palatal variant appears before and after front vowels, while the velar variant is used in all other positions.
 * describe it as voiced post-velar fricative.
 * and describe it as voiced uvular fricative ;  writes that "the place of articulation of the consonant varies from uvular in e.g. rot 'red' to velar in e.g. treten 'kick', depending on back or front vowel contexts." He also notes that  is devoiced after voiceless plosives and fricatives, especially those within the same word, giving the word treten 'to kick' as an example. According to this author,  can be reduced to an approximant in an intervocalic position.
 * describe it as a uvular fricative or approximant . The latter is less likely to occur word-initially.
 * Distribution: Almost all areas apart from Bavaria and parts of Switzerland.
 * Near-open central unrounded vowel is a post-vocalic allophone of (mostly dorsal) varieties of . The non-syllabic variant of it is not always near-open or central.
 * Distribution: Widespread, but less common in Switzerland.
 * The voiceless stops, , are aspirated except when preceded by a sibilant. Many southern dialects do not aspirate , and some northern ones do so only in a stressed position. The voiceless affricates , , and  are never aspirated, and neither are any other consonants besides the aforementioned.
 * The obstruents are voiceless lenis  in southern varieties, and they contrast with voiceless fortis.
 * In Austria, intervocalic can be lenited to fricatives  in casual speech.
 * There isn't a complete agreement about the nature of ; it has been variously described as a fricative,  a fricative, which can be fricated less strongly than , and an approximant.
 * In standard usage and careful speech, occurs before word stems that begin with a vowel. Although not usually considered a phoneme, it may have phonemic value: will ich  ("will I") vs. willig  ("willing"). In colloquial and dialectal speech, however,  is very often omitted, especially when the word beginning with a vowel is unstressed.
 * The phonemic status of affricates is controversial. The majority view accepts and, but not  or the non-native ; some accept none, some accept all but , and some accept all.  and  occur only in words of foreign origin. In certain varieties, they are replaced by  and  altogether.
 * is occasionally considered to be an allophone of, especially in southern varieties of German.
 * and are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels, respectively. For a more detailed analysis see below at ich-Laut and ach-Laut.  According to some analyses,  is an allophone of  after  and according to some also after.
 * Some phonologists deny the phoneme and use  instead along with  instead of . The phoneme sequence  is realized as  when  can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed, , or . It becomes  otherwise. For example:
 * Diphthong
 * diphthongieren
 * Englisch
 * Anglo
 * Ganges ~

Ich-Laut and ach-Laut
Ich-Laut is the voiceless palatal fricative (which is found in the word ich  'I'), and ach-Laut is voiceless velar fricative  (which is found in the word ach  the interjection 'oh', 'alas'). Note that Laut is the German word for 'sound, phone'. In German, these two sounds are allophones occurring in complementary distribution. The allophone occurs after back vowels and  (for instance in Buch  'book'), the allophone  after front vowels (for instance in mich  'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in Furcht  'fear', manchmal  'sometimes'). (This happens most regularly: if the r in "Furcht" is pronounced as a consonant, ch is pronounced as ; however if, as often happens, it is vocalized as, resembling the vowel , then ch may be realized as , yielding .)

In loanwords, the pronunciation of potential fricatives in onsets of stressed syllables vary: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is, while in Southern varieties, it is , and in Western varieties, it is (for instance in China:  vs.  vs. ).

The diminutive suffix -chen is always pronounced with an ich-Laut. Usually, this ending triggers umlaut (compare for instance Hund 'dog' to Hündchen  'little dog'), so theoretically, it could only occur after front vowels. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word Frauchen (a diminutive of Frau 'woman'), so that a back vowel is followed by, even though normally it would be followed by a , as in rauchen  'to smoke'. This exception to the allophonic distribution may be an effect of the morphemic boundary or an example of phonemicization, where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate phonemes.

The allophonic distribution of after front vowels and  after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as Scots, in the pronunciation of light. However, it is by no means inevitable: Dutch, Yiddish, and many Southern German dialects retain (which can be realized as  instead) in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that Old High German ih, the ancestor of modern ich, was pronounced with rather than. While it is impossible to know for certain whether Old English words such as niht (modern night) were pronounced with or,  is likely (see Old English phonology).

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of and  in modern Standard German is better described as backing of  after a back vowel, rather than fronting of  after a front vowel, because  is used in onsets (Chemie  'chemistry') and after consonants (Molch  'newt'), and is thus the underlying form of the phoneme. This is an example of assimilation.

According to Kohler, the German ach-Laut is further differentiated into two allophones, and :  occurs after  (for instance in Buch  'book') and  after  (for instance in Bach  'brook'), while either  or  may occur after, with  predominating.

Fortis–lenis pairs
Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same place of articulation and in the same manner of articulation, namely the pairs, , , ,. These pairs are often called fortis–lenis pairs, since describing them as voiced–voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications,, are also considered fortis–lenis pairs.

states that a fortis-lenis distinction for is unimportant.

The fortis stops are aspirated in most varieties. The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a stressed syllable (such as Taler 'thaler'), weaker in the onset of an unstressed syllable (such as Vater  'father'), and weakest in the syllable coda (such as in Saat  'seed'). All fortis consonants, i.e. are fully voiceless.

The lenis consonants range from being weakly voiced to almost voiceless  after voiceless consonants: Kasbah  'kasbah', abdanken  'to resign', rotgelb  'red-yellow', Abwurf  'dropping', Absicht  'intention', Holzjalousie  'wooden jalousie', wegjagen  'to chase away', tropfen  'to drop', Obstjuice  'fruit juice'. states that they are 'to a large extent voiced' in all other environments, but some studies have found the stops  to be voiceless word/utterance-initially in most dialects (while still contrasting with  due to the aspiration of the latter).

are voiceless in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as, although would also be valid (as in Icelandic).

The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that one of these characteristics implies the other.

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the syllable onset; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases.

The pair is not considered a fortis–lenis pair, but a simple voiceless–voiced pair, as  remains voiced in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that devoice the lenes (with however some exceptions. Generally, the southern  is realized as the voiced approximant . However there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis  (such as in sträflich  'culpable' from Middle High German stræflich) and a lenis  (, such as in höflich  'polite' from Middle High German hovelîch); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis   and lenis.

Coda devoicing
In most varieties of German, the lenis stops are unvoiced or at most variably voiced (as stated above). Therefore, it would be inaccurate to say that they devoice at the end of a syllable. It is more accurate to say that the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the syllable coda. (Truly voiced stops, as implied by the transcription, are found most often in Central German varieties. Some of these even use unaspirated fortis stops in either all or some environments.)

Fricatives are truly and contrastively voiced by most speakers. Therefore, these do undergo coda devoicing. It is disputed whether coda devoicing is due to a constraint which specifically operates on syllable codas or whether it arises from constraints which "protect voicing in privileged positions." For those southern speakers who do not use voiced fricatives, again there is no devoicing, but rather fortis-lenis neutralization (as with stops).

As against standard pronunciation rules, in western varieties including those of the Rhineland, coda fortis–lenis neutralization results in voicing rather than devoicing if the following word begins with a vowel. For example, mit uns becomes and darf ich becomes. The same sandhi phenomenon exists also as a general rule in the Luxembourgish language.

In a few southern varieties of German, such as Swiss German, neither coda devoicing nor coda fortis-lenis neutralization occurs.

Stress
Stress in German usually falls on the first syllable, with the following exceptions: Moreover, German makes a distinction in stress between separable prefixes (stress on prefix) and inseparable prefixes (stress on root) in verbs and words derived from such verbs. Therefore:
 * Many loanwords, especially proper names, keep their original stress. E.g. Obama
 * Nouns formed with Latinate suffixes, such as -ant, -anz, -enz, -ion, -ismus, -ist, -ment, -tät: Idealismus 'idealism', Konsonant  'consonant', Tourist  'tourist'
 * Verbs formed with the Latinate suffix -ieren, e.g. studieren 'to study'. This is often pronounced  in casual speech.
 * Compound adverbs, with her, hin, da, or wo as their first syllable part, receive stress on their second syllable, e.g. dagegen 'on the other hand', woher  'from where'
 * Words beginning with be-, ge-, er-, ver-, zer-, ent-, emp- and a few others receive stress on the second syllable.
 * Words having ab-, auf-, ein-, vor- as verb prefix, and most other prepositional adverbs receive stress on their first syllable.
 * Some prefixes, notably über-, unter-, um-, and durch-, can function as separable or inseparable prefixes, and are stressed and unstressed accordingly.
 * Rarely, two homographs with such prefixes are formed. They are not strictly homophones.  Consider the word, umschreiben.  As um•schreiben (separable prefix), it means 'to rewrite', and is pronounced, and its associated noun, die Umschreibung also receives stress on the first syllable - .  On the other hand, umschreiben (inseparable prefix) is pronounced .  This word means 'to circumscribe', and its associated noun, die Umschreibung ('circumscription') also receives stress on the second syllable - . Another example is the word umfahren. With stress on the root  it means 'to drive around (an obstacle in the street)', and with stress on the prefix  it means 'to drive over' or 'to collide with (an object on the street).'

General
Like all infants, German infants go through a babbling stage in the early phases of phonological acquisition, during which they produce the sounds they will later use in their first words. Phoneme inventories begin with stops, nasals, and vowels; (contrasting) short vowels and liquids appear next, followed by fricatives and affricates, and finally all other consonants and consonant clusters. Children begin to produce protowords near the end of their first year. These words do not approximate adult forms, yet have a specific and consistent meaning. Early word productions are phonetically simple and usually follow the syllable structure CV or CVC, although this generalization has been challenged. The first vowels produced are, , and , followed by , , and , with rounded vowels emerging last. German children often use phonological processes to simplify their early word production. For example, they may delete an unstressed syllable (Schokolade ‘chocolate’ pronounced ), or replace a fricative with a corresponding stop (Dach ‘roof’ pronounced ). One case study found that a 17-month-old child acquiring German replaced the voiceless velar fricative with the nearest available continuant, or deleted it altogether (Buch  ‘book’ pronounced  or ).

Vowel space development
In 2009, Lintfert examined the development of vowel space of German speakers in their first three years of life. During the babbling stage, vowel distribution has no clear pattern. However, stressed and unstressed vowels already show different distributions in the vowel space. Once word production begins, stressed vowels expand in the vowel space, while the F1-F2 vowel space of unstressed vowels becomes more centralized. The majority of infants are then capable of stable production of F1. It should be noted that the variability of formant frequencies among individuals decreases with age. After 24 months, infants expand their vowel space individually at different rates. However, if the parents’ utterances possess a well-defined vowel space, their children produce clearly distinguished vowel classes earlier. By about three years old, children command the production of all vowels, and they attempt to produce the four cardinal vowels,, , and , at the extreme limits of the F1-F2 vowel space (i.e., the height and backness of the vowels are made extreme by the infants).

Grammatical words
Generally, closed-class grammatical words (e.g. articles and prepositions) are absent from children’s speech when they first begin to combine words. However, children as young as 18 months old show knowledge of these closed-class words when they prefer stories with them, compared to passages with them omitted. Therefore, the absence of these grammatical words cannot be due to perceptual problems. Researchers tested children’s comprehension of four grammatical words: bis ] ‘up to’, von ‘from’, das  ‘the' (neuter singular), and sein  ‘his’. After first being familiarized with the words, eight-month-old children looked longer in the direction of a speaker playing a text passage that contained these previously heard words. However, this ability is absent in six-month-olds.

Nasals
The acquisition of nasals in German differs from that of Dutch, a phonologically closely related language. German children produce proportionately more nasals in onset position (sounds before a vowel in a syllable) than Dutch children do. German children, once they reached 16 months old, also produced significantly more nasals in syllables containing schwas, when compared with Dutch-speaking children. This may reflect differences in the languages the children are being exposed to, although the researchers claim that the development of nasals likely cannot be seen apart from the more general phonological system the child is developing.

Phonotactic constraints and reading
A 2006 study examined the acquisition of German in phonologically delayed children (specifically, issues with fronting of velars and stopping of fricatives) and whether they applied phonotactic constraints to word-initial consonant clusters containing these modified consonants. In many cases, the subjects (mean age = 5;1) avoided making phonotactic violations, opting instead for other consonants or clusters in their speech. This suggests that phonotactic constraints do apply to the speech of German children with phonological delay, at least in the case of word-initial consonant clusters. Additional research has also shown that spelling consistencies seen in German raise children’s phonemic awareness as they acquire reading skills.

Sound changes and mergers
A merger found mostly in Northern accents of German is that of (spelled ä, äh) with  (spelled e, ee, or eh). Some speakers merge the two everywhere, some distinguish them everywhere, others keep distinct only in conditional forms of strong verbs (for example ich gäbe  'I would give' vs. ich gebe  'I give' are distinguished, but Bären  'bears' vs. Beeren  'berries' are not. Standard pronunciation of Bären is ).

Another common merger is that of at the end of a syllable with  or respectively, for instance Krieg  ('war'), but Kriege  ('wars'); er lag  ('he lay'), but wir lagen  ('we lay'). This pronunciation is frequent all over central and northern Germany. It is characteristic of regional languages and dialects, particularly Low German in the North, where ‹g› represents a fricative, becoming voiceless in the syllable coda, as is common in German (Final-obstruent devoicing). However common it is, this pronunciation is considered sub-standard. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending -ig (which corresponds to English -y), the fricative pronunciation of final ‹g› is prescribed by the Siebs standard, for instance wichtig ('important'). The merger occurs neither in Austro-Bavarian and Alemannic German nor in the corresponding varieties of Standard German, and therefore in these regions -ig is pronounced.

Many speakers do not distinguish the affricate from the simple fricative  in the beginning of a word. The verb (er) fährt ('[he] travels') and the noun Pferd ('horse') are then equally pronounced. This occurs especially in regions where did not originally occur in the local dialects, i.e. northern and western Germany. Some speakers also have peculiar pronunciation for in the middle or end of a word, replacing the  in  with a voiceless bilabial fricative, i.e. a consonant produced by pressing air flow through the tensed lips. Thereby Tropfen 'drop' becomes, rather than.

Many speakers (especially in the North) who have a vocalization of after, merge this combination with long  (i.e.  >  >  or ). Hereby, Schaf ('sheep') and scharf ('sharp') can both be pronounced. This merger does not occur where is realised as a back vowel, thus keeping the words distinct as  and. However, in both Bavarian and Franconian dialects, the latter would always be pronounced with a distinct  sound. Furthermore, in umlaut forms, the difference usually reoccurs: Schäfer vs. schärfer. Speakers with this merger also often use (instead of formally normal ) where it stems from original. The word Archen ('arks') is thus pronounced, which makes a minimal pair with Aachen , making the difference between and  phonemic, rather than just allophonic, for these speakers.

In the standard pronunciation, the vowel qualities, , , , as well as , , , , are all still distinguished even in unstressed syllables. In this latter case, however, many simplify the system in various degrees. For some speakers, this may go so far as to merge all four into one, whence misspellings by schoolchildren such as Bräutegam (instead of Bräutigam) or Portogal (instead of Portugal).

In everyday speech, more mergers occur, some of which are universal and some of which are typical for certain regions or dialect backgrounds. Overall, there is a strong tendency of reduction and contraction. For example, long vowels may be shortened, consonant clusters may be simplified, word-final may be dropped in some cases, and the suffix -en may be contracted with preceding consonants, e.g.  for haben  ('to have').

When stops occur between two nasals (one being syllabic), they may be replaced by a glottal stop though they still determine the nature of the nasal. Thus, Lampen ('lamps') changes from to ; speakers are often unaware of this.

If the clusters, , , or are followed by another consonant, the stops ,  and  usually lose their phonemic status. Thus while the standard pronunciation distinguishes ganz ("whole") from Gans, as well as er sinkt  from er singt , the two pairs are homophones for most speakers. The commonest practice is to drop the stop (thus, for both words), but some speakers insert the stop where it is not etymological (,  for both words), or they alternate between the two ways. Only few speakers retain a phonemic distinction.

Middle High German
The Middle High German vowels and  developed into the modern Standard German diphthong, whereas  and  developed into. For example, Middle High German heiz and wîz  ('hot' and 'white') became Standard German heiß  and weiß. In other dialects, the Middle High German vowels developed differently: Bavarian hoaß and weiß, Ripuarian heeß and wieß, Swiss German heiss  and wiiss, Yiddish heys  and vays.

The Middle High German diphthongs, and  became the modern Standard German long vowels ,  and  after the Middle High German long vowels changed to diphthongs. In most Upper German dialects, the diphthongs are retained. A remnant of their former diphthong character is shown when continues to be written ie in German (as in Liebe 'love').

Incorporation of Loanwords
German incorporates a significant number of loanwords from other languages. Loanwords are often adapted to German phonology, but to varying degrees, depending on the speaker and the commonness of the word. and do not occur in native German words, but are common in a number of French and English loan words. Many speakers replace them with and  respectively (especially in Southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland), so that Dschungel (from English jungle) can be pronounced  or. Some speakers in Northern and Western Germany merge with, so that Journalist (phonemically /d͡ʒʊʁnaˈlɪst ~ ʒʊʁnaˈlɪst/) can be pronounced ,  or. The realization of as  is uncommon though.

Loanwords from English
A large number of English words is used in German, especially in technology and pop culture. Some speakers pronounce them similar to their native pronunciation, but many speakers change non-native phonemes to similar-sounding German phonemes. Some common realizations:
 * English are usually pronounced as in RP or General American; some speakers replace them with  and  respectively e.g. Thriller.
 * English can be pronounced the same as in English, i.e., or as the corresponding native German  e.g. Rock  or . German and Austrian speakers tend to be variably rhotic.
 * English is often replaced with German  e.g. Whiskey.
 * word-initial is often retained (especially in the South, where word-initial  is common), but many speakers replace it with  e.g. Sound.
 * word-initial and  are usually retained, but some speakers (especially in South Western Germany and Western Austria) replace them with  and respectively  e.g. Steak  or, Spray  or.
 * English is usually retained, but in Northern and Western Germany and Luxembourg is often replaced with  e.g. Chips.
 * Final-obstruent devoicing is applied to English loan words too e.g. Airbag, Lord or , Backstage.
 * English and  are often replaced with  and  respectively e.g. Homepage.
 * English and  are pronounced the same, as German  (met–mat merger) e.g. Backup.
 * English and  are pronounced the same, as German  (cot–caught merger) e.g. Box.
 * English is usually pronounced as German  e.g. Cutter.
 * English is usually pronounced as German  e.g. Shirt  or.
 * English is pronounced as German  (happy-tensing) e.g. Whiskey.

Sample
The sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the Sun. The phonemic transcription treats every instance of and  as  and, respectively. The phonetic transcription is a fairly narrow transcription of the educated northern accent. The speaker transcribed in the narrow transcription is 62 years old, and he is reading in a colloquial style. Aspiration, glottal stops and devoicing of the lenes after voiceless consonants are not transcribed.

Orthographic version
Einst stritten sich Nordwind und Sonne, wer von ihnen beiden wohl der Stärkere wäre, als ein Wanderer, der in einen warmen Mantel gehüllt war, des Weges daherkam. Sie wurden einig, dass derjenige für den Stärkeren gelten sollte, der den Wanderer zwingen würde, seinen Mantel abzunehmen. Der Nordwind blies mit aller Macht, aber je mehr er blies, desto fester hüllte sich der Wanderer in seinen Mantel ein. Endlich gab der Nordwind den Kampf auf. Nun erwärmte die Sonne die Luft mit ihren freundlichen Strahlen, und schon nach wenigen Augenblicken zog der Wanderer seinen Mantel aus. Da musste der Nordwind zugeben, dass die Sonne von ihnen beiden der Stärkere war.